The Mystery of the Minoans

 The Mystery of the Minoans

by Edward R Doench

Arriving on the scene around 3500 BC, the Minoans were arguably the first advanced civilization to arise in Europe. During its two millennia of its existence, it forged a nautical empire centered upon the island of Crete, an empire that allegedly eschewed military conquest in favor of trade and maintained mercantile ventures that stretched across the known world. Then, around 1250 BC, the Minoans disappeared as mysteriously as they arrived and remained “lost” until rediscovered in the early 20^th century.

Despite the extent and longevity of this empire, little is known about the Minoan people themselves beyond extrapolations from surviving remnants of their artwork and tantalizing fragments of hints in the historical records of Egypt. It is not even known what they called themselves, although Phil Butler speculates that they may be the same as the people that the Egyptians called the “Keftiu” (Butler). No other name for the Minoans has yet to appear in any historical or archaeological references, and the name “Minoan” was given to them by English archaeologist Arthur Evans, who discovered a labyrinthian palace at Knossos and named the builders in honor of the legendary Cretan king Minos. However, when the fragmentary traces of the Minoans are put together with the few references to them by the Egyptians and other civilizations in the area and combined with current scientific data regarding Crete and its immediate environs, an interesting picture emerges.

Among the primary beliefs about the Minoans that have been maintained in the century since the Minoan civilization was rediscovered are that they were a pacifistic, highly spiritual society which eschewed combat to the point that they had no need even for city walls, and that they were extremely innovative in applying existing scientific knowledge to augment and even enhance their own society. The main argument in favor of the pacifism theory has been summarized by A. N. Angelakis:

In the list of wars worldwide before ca. 1000 BC (including those related to conflicts over water resources), and especially during the Bronze Age (ca. 3200–1100 BC), one can observe that most occurred in the eastern Mediterranean region, where the Minoans dominated. For example, in the Early Minoan period Libyans and Egyptians fought against the Levante and others, in the Middle Minoan period Sumerians fought against Babylonian cities, Babylonians against Elamites, Sumerians and Assyrians, and Hittites against Babylonians and Hurrians, and finally during the Late Minoan period, Egyptians fought against Libyans, Persians and Phoenicians. However, it is remarkable that in none of these wars and/or hostilities did the Minoans have any direct or indirect military engagement. (Angelakis 1106)

This romantic belief of Minoan pacifism appears to more accurately be the result of the Minoans having not been recorded as being among the direct participants on one side or the other, nor of war was being fought on their behalf through proxies. Angelakis goes on to claim that the Minoans were, “always playing a conciliatory role between the warring parties” (Angelakis 1107). This is a rather odd and potentially unsubstantiated claim to make about a people who have no direct reference in the historical record, but it does make sense when considering that the Minoans were traders who would likely have been willing to trade with both sides of a conflict equally, and who would see war as being bad for business.

Although there are no historical or archaeological records mentioning the Minoans engaging in battle, this is not the same as claiming that they necessarily possessed a pacifistic culture. An analysis of the surviving frescos and other artwork produced by the Minoans has led Dr Barry Molloy of the University of Sheffield's Department of Archaeology to point out that, “war was in fact a defining characteristic of the Minoan society, and that warrior identity was one of the dominant expressions of male identity” (University of Sheffield). Molloy continued by saying, “the activities of warriors included such diverse things as public displays of bull-leaping, boxing contests, wrestling, hunting, sparring and duelling” (University of Sheffield). The Minoans are also known to have used metals such as bronze in the manufacture of weapons. Molloy claims that, “"it is to Crete we must look for the origin of those weapons that were to dominate Europe until the Middle Ages, namely swords, metal battle-axes, shields, spears and probably armour also" (University of Sheffield).

It therefore seems possible that the Minoans do not appear in any records of wars because, until the invasion by the Myceneans in the Late Minoan Period, none of the local belligerents dared to attack them, nor did anyone have resources that the Minoans could not simply acquire through trade. Safe from attack by outsiders – an amphibious assault against well-armed and well-trained defenders being one of the most dangerous and costly attacks in history – and with no pressing need to engage in conquest themselves, the apparently spiritually minded Minoans can easily be confused as having been pacifists when, in fact, their apparent pacifism may just as easily – and perhaps more accurately – be seen as a fervent belief in stewardship of the resources available to them.

There is no concrete historical or archaeological reason for this protection against invasion, and it is in fact certainly unusual given the centralized location of Crete in the eastern Mediterranean as well as the apparent wealth possessed by the Minoans. Although a costly form of attack, it is surprising that it was not attempted at least once or twice. However, certain elements of surviving Minoan artwork may provide a clue.

Many of the frescos depict natural-appearing humans and animals in natural-appearing environments and settings performing understandable tasks. This includes several depictions of two species of monkey – vervets and baboons – that are native to northern Africa and would have been known to the Minoans. What is significant is that while the vervets are depicted with normal coloration and engaging in activities typical of monkeys in general, there are multiple instances depicting blue-furred baboons that B. Urbani and D. Youlatos describe to be engaging in atypical activities such as, “flower offerings or gathering, as well as using swords and playing music on lyre-like instruments” (Urbami and Youlatos). Baboons are among the most intelligent of monkeys, and it would not have been unheard of even back then for individual examples to be trained in such a manner. Even if such creatures were not routinely trained to wield swords and engage in combat with them, their depictions as such on the vessels holding tradeable commodities provided a propaganda value that could easily lead to the belief that they were, and this would certainly be enough to give prospective attackers pause.

Trained baboons, whether they had blue fur or not, were not the only form of unusual fauna to which the Minoans may have had access. While exotic creatures such as the Cretan dwarf mammoth and the Cretan dwarf hippopotamus would have long been extinct by the time the Minoans arrived on the scene, Tristan Rapp speculates that the dwarf elephants of the island of Tilos may have survived until, “well within the height of Minoan civilization” (Rapp). Given the seafaring nature of the Minoans, they were almost certainly aware of the presence of such creatures, and the dwarf elephants may very well have been the source of the ivory that the “Keftiu” brought to Egypt. Although there are currently no historical records to support the theory, it is worth noting that elephants are relatively easily domesticated and trained as both beasts of burden and of war, and even dwarf elephants would have been suitable as such among the Minoans; an iconic image from as late as the AD 1950s shows circus elephants being used to help raise the main poles that supported the big tops.

Dwarf or not, elephants would never have been excessively numerous among the Minoans; the island of Tilos was relatively barren and could never have supported more than a small population. An additional note of interest is that the successful invasion of Crete by the Myceneans did not occur until the Late Minoan Period, well after the dwarf elephants of Tilos are known to have become extinct.

The “Minoan snake goddess” – a bare-breasted female wearing a long skirt and holding a snake in either hand – is a well-known figure in Minoan artwork. Many historical and pseudo-historical figures and groups who “take up snakes” are handling the venomous variety, and while many of the vipers native to the Aegean possess venom that is relatively harmless to a healthy human, the Horn-Nosed Viper can grow to nearly a meter in length and possesses a powerful hemotoxic venom that can be milked from the snake.

Angelakis also describes the Minoan empire as being, “rich in trade of all kinds of goods, with access to amenities, such as plumbing, paved roads, and well-planned towns, that would not be seen again for several centuries” (Angelakis 1106). An example of this can be seen in the Minoans’ hydro-technologies. Rather than the standard cylindrical terra cotta piping, the Minoans apparently favored a series of tapered segments that, among other advantages, allowed more versatility in how the water line was run. They also made use of flushable toilets with seats, possessed sophisticated sand-filtered wastewater treatment systems, and even constructed storm drains that were still perfectly functional and in use some 3500 years after the fall of the civilization. Angelakis claims that the Minoans were, “pioneers in the recycling and reuse of water” (Angelakis 1116).

Another field in which the Minoans appear to have been precociously innovative is illumination. While the use of both beeswax and honey were known to various cultures in antiquity, it has long been assumed that the primary method used for interior lighting was a clay or terracotta lamp filled with olive oil. However, the dominant residue found in Minoan lamps appears to be either beeswax or the beeswax mixed with a plant-based leaf wax. Such a mixture would burn well in its solid form without the risk of spillage, an extremely important consideration for a naval power that used ships made of flammable wood and canvas. Despite this, the technology does not appear to have been very widespread; Richard Evershed points out that, “it is difficult to envisage a prehistoric practice refining substantial quantities of plant wax as a viable lamp fuel” (Evershed). The Minoans, however, appear to have been capable of doing so.

In addition to hydraulics and illumination technologies, there are other fields in which the Minoans exhibited an advanced knowledge. With advanced hydro-engineering, the Minoans were not as dependent as other civilizations on an immediately available source of water for agriculture. Angelakis suggests that this allowed the Minoans to, “install their palaces, towns and other urban areas in places with hot and dry climatic conditions for hygienic reasons and for protection from diseases and natural hazards (such as floods and droughts)” (Angelakis 1107). Such urban planning would seem to argue in favor of a knowledge of medicine in general and epidemiology in particular that was well beyond the level customarily associated with the other Bronze Age civilizations in the eastern Mediterranean at the time. Paved roads would imply the use of wheeled vehicles, which in turn implies the domestication of animals large enough to pull them. Even the construction of the Minoans’ labyrinthian palace complexes argues favorably for advanced skills in architecture and construction.

No civilization lasts forever, of course, and although the Minoan civilization lasted more than 2000 years, it eventually fell. The reasons for this fall have been argued for more than a century, and the theories range from the catastrophic eruption of the volcano in nearby Thera to invasion by the Myceneans. However, both leading theories have problems.

According to A. A. Tsonis, the catastrophism theory argues, “earthquakes destroyed the palaces, tsunamis obliterated the fleet and piers of the Minoans, and the volcanic ash of Thera covered the whole island destroying crops and killing animals” (Tsonis 525). This is echoed by Butler when he states, “The Thera eruption, the biggest volcanic event in human history, sent wave after tsunami wave to rip huge pieces of ancient Itanos, Palaekastro, and the landfalls near Zakros Minoan Palace off of the main island of Crete” (Butler).

This theory, first posited in 1939, has been the explanation of choice of die-hard Atlantis apologists for decades. However, Tsonis goes on to explain that the eruption of Thera can be reliably radiocarbon dated to having occurred, “between [BC] 1660 and 1613 with a 95% confidence” (Tsonis 526). This is two hundred years before the destruction of the palaces, and some 450 years before the Minoans disappeared. Such a catastrophe may have impacted the Minoan civilization, but apparently did not do so enough to cause its collapse.

The second most common theory for the disappearance of the Minoans is the invasion scenario. Spielvogel describes this as, “mainland Greeks known as the Myceneans invaded and pillaged many centers, including Knossus” (Spielvogel 55). While this theory appears to fit within the accepted timeline for the decline of the Minoan civilization, Tsonis has provided a rebuttal for this theory as well:

However, archeological evidence to support this idea is either contradictory or lacking. For example, skeletal remains consistent with an invasion pattern have never been found. Indeed in the palaces the dead were neatly buried in well preserved burial sites, a pattern inconsistent with an invasion scenario. The fact that the Mycenaeans did not establish themselves in nearby and more vulnerable Crete as they did in mainland Greece is also not consistent with ambitious military conquest, even though Mycenaean culture was clearly influential in mainland Greece at this time. (Tsonis)

Tsonis has therefore proposed a third theory, one that is firmly grounded in meteorological data and the extrapolation thereof. Tsonis’ theory is that a climatic shift subjected Crete to an extended El Nino / La Nina period that led in turn to an extensive drought. This theory is comparable to the relatively sudden disappearance of the Mayan civilization, as Tsonis points out:

Around 800 AD, the Mayans were at the peak of civilization with a population of about 15 million occupying the area from Mexico’s Yucatan peninsula to Honduras, before they ultimately and rather suddenly disappeared. In addition to hypotheses concerning epidemic disease as the agent, evidence has emerged that a long period of dry climate, punctuated by three intense droughts, may have contributed to the end of Mayan society. (Tsonis 526)

Tsonis goes on to indicate that there is substantial evidence to suggest that climate change played a central role in the downfall of Minoan civilization:

Thus, it is highly probable that the area of Crete experienced drier conditions from 1450 to 1200BC and even later. For communities that strongly depended on water and agriculture in order to survive, the cumulative effect of these drier conditions could have been devastating and may have led to a slow decline bringing the population below a critical threshold that will allow it to exist and thrive. (Tsonis 529)

Even though Tsonis ruled out a volcanic eruption as the primary reason for the decline of the Minoan civilization, he does acknowledge that it could have been a contributing factor:

Climate change and its associated effects will always influence our lives. While nobody anymore expects any civilization to get extinct because of climate, it is becoming clear that convergent events such as earthquakes and volcanic activity in synergy with climate anomalies may produce significant stress to contemporary populations vis-a-vis their social and economic development. (Tsonis 529)

Although there is no proof that Minoan Crete was the inspiration for the island of Atlantis, apologists can perhaps be forgiven for equating that ancient culture with the object of their obsession. Like the legendary Atlanteans, the Minoans were an island nation-state that possessed relatively advanced knowledge in multiple technologies ranging from water management to animal husbandry to sanitation. Their homeland offered suitable resources to establish and maintain a robust naval industry, providing for a powerful merchant fleet that both spread Minoan influence throughout the known world and brought back novelties for the pleasure of its citizens. The Minoan military, which was almost certainly equipped with metal weapons that were state-of-the-art for the time, was apparently powerful enough in its heyday that none dared attack the island.

It is important to remember that the Minoan civilization existed at the dawn of the historical era, and its unique written language remains a mystery to this day. It is possible that the language may never be translated, and even if it is the fragments that have survived could be merely the equivalent of accounting ledgers. Therefore, all that is really known of the Minoans is derived from fragments of artwork, an increasingly refined scientific extrapolation of known events, and a study of the technology – both known and inferred – that can be seen as innovative without necessarily being anachronistic, technology that could provide a rational for events that have long-since passed into the realm of mythology.

Works Cited

Angelakis, A. N. (2017). Hydro-technologies in the Minoan era. Water Supply, 17(4), 1106–1120. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2017.006

Butler, Phil, and Argophilia Travel News. “The Keftiu Legend: When Peace Swayed All Creatures.” Argophilia, 26 Oct. 2021, https://www.argophilia.com/news/the-keftiu-legend-when-peace-swayed-all-creatures/228949/.

Evershed, Richard P., et al. “Fuel for Thought? Beeswax in Lamps and Conical Cups from Late Minoan Crete.” Antiquity, vol. 71, no. 274, 1997, pp. 979–985., https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00085860.

Rapp, T. (2021, October 18). Elephants of the Aegean - dwarfs and giants of the Ancient Sea. The Extinctions. Retrieved November 28, 2021, from https://www.theextinctions.com/articles-1/elephants-of-the-aegean-dwarfs-and-giants-of-the-ancient-sea.

Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization. Cengage Learning, 2018.

Tsonis, A. A., Swanson, K. L., Sugihara, G., & Tsonis, P. A. (2010). Climate change and the demise of Minoan civilization. Climate of the Past, 6(4), 525–530. https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-6-525-2010

University of Sheffield. "War was central to Minoan civilization of Crete, contrary to popular belief." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 15 January 2013. <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/01/130115101520.htm>.

Urbani, B., & Youlatos, D. (2020). A new look at the Minoan ‘blue’ monkeys. Antiquity, 94(374). https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2020.29